Skip to main content Skip to main navigation menu Skip to site footer

Taking a crack at the dome: histopathology of a pachycephalosaurid (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) frontoparietal dome

Abstract

Recent studies have identified numerous pathologies in the cranial domes of pachycephalosaurid dinosaurs. These studies utilized CT images of domes to identify secondary woven bone and sclerosis associated with the pathologies. These features were critical for diagnosing post-traumatic osteomyelitis, which supported the head-butting behaviour hypothesis. However, conventional CT image resolution may not be sufficient to identify secondary woven bone or sclerotic bone in fossil specimens. UALVP 8504 (cf. Foraminacephale brevis), a dome possessing putative bone lesions, was thin-sectioned and micro-CT scanned. Thin sections revealed the lesions are lytic, without any secondary woven bone or sclerosis, falsifying the diagnosis of osteomyelitis. The morphology and histology of the lesions of UALVP 8504 are not diagnostic and resemble both post-traumatic and non-traumatic lesions.  However, UALVP 8504 possesses shifted vascular canals (repositioning via remodeling, which maintains anatomical position throughout ontogeny) that are decoupled from growth (), and drifting osteons (secondary osteons where resorption occurs longitudinally and transversely). These demonstrate that the dome has sustained external mechanical loading, likely resulting from an impact or multiple impacts, consistent with the head-butting hypothesis. These impacts may have damaged overlying soft tissues and formed the lesions along the surface. Therefore, we suspect that the pathologies in UALVP 8504 are post-traumatic.

Section

References

  1. Bailleul, A.M., & Horner, J.R. (2016). Comparative histology of some craniofacial sutures and skull-base synchondroses in non-avian dinosaurs and their extant phylogenetic bracket. J Anat. 229(2), 252–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12471
  2. Bailleul, A.M., O’Connor, J., & Schweitzer, M.H. (2019). Dinosaur paleohistology: Review, trends and new avenues of investigation. PeerJ. 7(e7764). https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7764
  3. Barten, SL. (2006). Shell Damage. In: Mader DR, editor. Reptil Med Surg [Internet]. Second Edi. [place unknown]: Elsevier Inc.; p. 893–899. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B0-7216-9327-X/50071-7
  4. Bermúdes de Castro, J.M. (1988). Dental diseases and Harris lines in the fossil human remains from Atapuerca-Ibeas (Spain). J Paleopathol. 1(3):131–146.
  5. Bobra, S.T., Matzinger, K., & McCluskey, L.U. (1964). Epidermoid cyst of the terminal phalanx of the thumb. Can Med Assoc J., 90,1464–1466.
  6. De Boer, H.H., Van der Merwe, A.E., & Maat, G.J.R. (2013). The diagnostic value of microscopy in dry bone palaeopathology: A review. Int J Paleopathol., 3(2),113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpp.2013.03.004
  7. Boyde, A., & Hobdell, M.H. (1968). Scanning electron microscopy of lamellar bone. Zeitschrift für Zellforsch und Mikroskopische Anat., 93(2), 213–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00336690
  8. Brown, B,. & Schlaikjer, E.M. (1943). A study of the troodont dinosaurs with the description of a new genus and four new species. Bull Am Museum Nat Hist., 82,115–150.
  9. Burnton, P., Nyssen-Behets, C., & Dhem, A. (1989). Haversian bone remodeling in human fetus. Acta Anat (Basel)., 135, 171–175.
  10. Cabral, U.G.,, Riff D., Kellner, A.W.A., & Henriques, D.D.R. (2011). Pathological features and insect boring marks in a crocodyliform from the Bauru Basin, Cretaceous of Brazil. Zool J Linn Soc., 163, S140–S151. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00715.x
  11. Calhoun, J.H., & Manring, M.M. (2005). Adult osteomyelitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 19(4), 765–786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2005.07.009
  12. Canoville, A., & Chinsamy, A. (2017). Bone microstructure of pareiasaurs (Parareptilia) from the Karoo Basin, South Africa: Implications for growth strategies and lifestyle habits. Anat Rec., 300(6), 1039–1066. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.23534
  13. Clutton-Brock, J., Dennis-Bryan. K., Armitage, P.L., & Jewekk. P.A. (1990). Osteology of the Soay sheep. Bull Br Museum, Nat Hist Zool., 56(1), 1–56.
  14. Enlow, D.H., & Harris, D.B. (1964). A study of the postnatal growth of the human mandible. Am J Orthod., 50(1), 25–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9416(64)80016-6
  15. Epker, B.N., & Frost, H.M. (1965). The direction of transverse drift of actively forming osteons in human rib cortex. J Bone Jt Surg., 47(6), 1211–1215.
  16. Evans, D.C., Brown, C.M., Ryan, M.J., & Tsogtbaatar, K. (2011). Cranial ornamentation and ontogenetic status of Homalocephale calathocercos (Ornithischia: Pachycephalosauria) from the Nemegt Formation, Mongolia. J Vertebr Paleontol., 31(1), 84–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2011.546287
  17. Evans, D.C., Hayashi, S., Chiba, K., Watabe, M., Ryan, M.J., Lee, Y.N., Currie, P.J., Tsogtbaatar, K., & Barsbold, R. 2018. Morphology and histology of new cranial specimens of Pachycephalosauridae (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) from the Nemegt Formation, Mongolia. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol [Internet]. 494:121–134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.11.029
  18. Evans, D.C., Schott, R.K., Larson, D.W., Brown, C.M., Ryan, M.J. (2013). The oldest North American pachycephalosaurid and the hidden diversity of small-bodied ornithischian dinosaurs. Nat Commun. 4, 1828. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2749
  19. Evans, D.C., Vavrek, M.J., & Larsson, H.C.E. (2015). Pachycephalosaurid (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) cranial remains from the latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Scollard Formation of Alberta, Canada. Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments., 95, 579–585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12549-015-0188-x
  20. Favara, B.E., Feller, A.C., Pauli, M., Jaffe, E.S., Weiss, L.M., Arico, M., Bucsky, P., Egeler, R.M., Elinder, G., Gadner, H., et al. (1997). Contemporary classification of histiocytic disorders. Med Pediatr Oncol. 29(3):157–166. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-911X(199709)29:3%3C157::AID-MPO1%3E3.0.CO;2-C
  21. Fleckenstein, P., Tranum-Jensen, J., & Myschetzky, P.S. (2014). Anatomy in Diagnostic Imaging (3rd ed). Chrichester: John Whiley & Sons.
  22. Galton, P.M. (1971). A primitive dome-headed dinosaur (Ornithischia: Pachycephalosauridae) from the Lower Cretaceous of England and the function of the dome of pachycephalosaurids. J Paleontol., 45(1), 40–47.
  23. García, R.A., Cerda, I.A., Heller, M.M., Rothschild, B.M., & Zurriaguz, V. (2016). The first evidence of osteomyelitis in a sauropod dinosaur. Lethaia, 50, 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/let.12189
  24. Garner, M.M., Herrington, R., Howerth, E.W., Homer, B.L., Nettles, V.F., Isaza, R., Shotts, E.B. (Jr), Jacobson, E.R. (1997). Shell disease in river cooters (Pseudemys concinna) and yellow-bellied turtles (Trachemys scripta) in a Georgia (USA) lake. J Wil., 33(1), 78–86. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-33.1.78
  25. Geist, V. (1966). The evolution of horn-like organs. Behaviour, 27(3/4), 175–214. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853966X00155
  26. Gilmore, C.W. (1924). On Troodon validus, an orthopodous dinosaur from the Belly River Cretaceous of Alberta, Canada. Univ Alberta, Dep Geol Bull 1.:1–43.
  27. Goodwin, M.B., Buchholtz, E.A., & Johnson, R.E. (1998). Cranial anatomy and diagnosis of Stygimoloch spinifer (Ornithischia: Pachycephalosauria) with comments on cranial, display structures in agonistic behavior. J Vertebr Paleontol. 18(2), 363–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1998.10011064
  28. Goodwin, M.B., & Horner, J.R. (2004). Cranial histology of pachycephalosaurs (Ornithischia: Marginocephalia) reveals transitory structures inconsistent with head-butting behavior. Paleobiology, 30(2), 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030%3C0253:CHOPOM%3E2.0.CO;2
  29. Haines, R.W., & Mohuiddin, A. (1968). Metaplastic bone. J Anat [Internet]. 103(3):527–38. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5683997%0Ahttp://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=PMC1231669
  30. Hameed, A., Brady, J.J., Dowling, P., Clynes, M., & O’Gorman, P. (2014). Bone disease in multiple myeloma: pathophysiology and management. Cancer Growth Metastasis, 7, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.4137%2FCGM.S16817
  31. Harkewicz, K.A. (2001). Dermatology of reptiles: A clinical approach to diagnosis and treatment. Vet Clin North Am - Exot Anim Pract, 4(2), 441–461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1094-9194(17), 30039-7
  32. Hieronymus, T.L., Witmer, L.M., Tanke, D.H., & Currie, P.J. (2009). The facial integument of centrosaurine ceratopsids: Morphological and histological correlates of novel skin structures. Anat Rec, 292(9), 1370–1396. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.20985
  33. Hone, D.W.E., Tanke, D.H. (2015). Pre- and postmortem tyrannosaurid bite marks on the remains of Daspletosaurus (Tyrannosaurinae: Theropoda) from Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. PeerJ, 3, e885. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.885
  34. Horner, J.R., Goodwin, M.B. (2009). Extreme cranial ontogeny in the upper cretaceous dinosaur Pachycephalosaurus. PLoS One, 4(10), e7627. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007626
  35. Hunt, T.C., Peterson, J.E., Frederickson, J.A., Cohen, J.E., & Berry, J.L. (2019). First documented pathologies in Tenontosaurus tilletti with comments on infection in non-avian dinosaurs. Sci Rep, 9(8705), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-45101-6
  36. Huttenlocker, A.K., Woodward, H., & Hall, B.K. (2013). The Biology of Bone. In: Padian K, Lamm E-T, editors. Bone Histol Foss Tetrapods Adv Methods, Anal Interpret. University of California Press; p. 13–34.
  37. Jasinoski, S.C., & Chinsamy, A. (2012). Mandibular histology and growth of the nonmammaliaform cynodont Tritylodon. J Anat, 220(6), 564–579. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01494.x
  38. Kierdorf, U., Meng, S., & Kahlke, R. (2016). Resorptive depressions on a horn core of Late Pleistocene (MIS 3) Bison priscus (Bovidae, Mammalia) from northeastern Germany. Int J Paleopathol. 15, 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpp.2016.08.006
  39. Lambe, L,M. (1902). New genera and species from the Belly River series (Mid-Cretaceous). Contrib to Can Paleontol Geol Surv Canada. 3, 25–81.
  40. Lambe, L.M. (1918). The Cretaceous genus Stegoceras, typifying a new family referred provisionally to the Stegosauria. Trans R Soc Canada, 12, 23–36.
  41. Landry, S.O. (1995). Stegoceras not a head-butter. Am Zool, 35(5), 60A.
  42. Lehman, T.M. (2010). Pachycephalosauridae from the San Carlos and Aguja Formations (Upper Cretaceous) of West Texas, and observations of the frontoparietal dome. J Vertebr Paleontol, 30(3), 786–798. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724631003763532
  43. Longrich, N.R., Sankey, J., & Tanke, D. (2010). Texacephale langstoni, a new genus of pachycephalosaurid (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) from the upper Campanian Aguja Formation, southern Texas, USA. Cretac Res., 31(2), 274–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2009.12.002
  44. Lovich, J.E., Gotte, S.W., Ernst, C.H., Harshbarger, J.C., Laemmerzahl, A.F., & Gibbons. J.W. (1996). Prevalence and histopathology of shell disease in turtles from Lake Blackshear, Georgia. J Wildl Dis, 32(2), 259–265. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-32.2.259
  45. Maas, AK. (2013). Vesicular, ulcerative, and necrotic dermatitis of reptiles. Vet Clin North Am - Exot Anim Pract, 16(3), 737–755. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2013.05.007
  46. Mallon, J.C., & Evans, D.C. (2014). Taphonomy and habitat preference of North American pachycephalosaurids (Dinosauria, Ornithischia). Lethaia, 47(4), 567–578. https://doi.org/10.1111/let.12082
  47. Marks, M.K., & Hamilton, M.D. (2007). Metatatic carcinoma: palaeopathology and differential diagnosis. Int J Osteoarchaeol. 17, 217–234. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.874
  48. Maryańska, T. (1990). Pachycephalosauria. In: Weishampel DB, Dodson P, Osmólska H, editors. Dinosaur. 1st ed. Berkley: University of California Press; p. 564–577.
  49. Maryańska, T., Chapman, R.E., & Weishampel, D.B. (2004). Pachycephalosauria. In: D.B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, & H. Osmólska (Eds). Dinosaur (2nd ed). Berkley: University of California Press.
  50. Maryańska, T., & Osmólska, H. (1974). Pachycephalosauria, a new suborder of ornithischian dinosaurs. Palaeontol Pol. 30, 45–102.
  51. Matthias, A.E., McWhinney, L.A., & Carpenter, K. (2016). Pathological pitting in ankylosaur (Dinosauria) osteoderms. Int J Paleopathol. 13, 82–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpp.2016.02.006
  52. Mundy, G.R., Altman, A.J., Gondek, M.D., & Bandelin, J.G. (1977). Direct resorption of bone by human monocytes. Science, 196(4294), 1109–1111. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.16343
  53. van Oers, R.F.M., Klein-Nulend, J., & Bacabac, R.G. (2014). The osteocyte as an orchestrator of bone remodeling: An engineer’s perspective. Clin Rev Bone Miner Metab. 12(1), 2–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12018-014-9154-9
  54. van Oers, R.F.M., Ruimerman, R., van Rietbergen, B., Hilbers, P.A.J., Huiskes, R. (2008). Relating osteon diameter to strain. Bone, 43(3), 476–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2008.05.015
  55. Ortner, D.J. (2003). Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (2nd ed). San Diego CA: Academic Press.
  56. Pardo-Pérez, J.M., Kear, B.P., Gómez, M., Moroni, M., & Maxwell, E.E. (2018). Ichthyosaurian palaeopathology: evidence of injury and disease in fossil ‘fish lizards.’ J Zool, 304(1), 21–33.
  57. Perle, A., Maryańska, T., & Osmólska, H. (1982). Goyocephale lattimorei gen. et sp. n., a new flat-headed pachycephalosaur (Ornithischia, Dinosauria) from the Upper Cretaceous of Mongolia. Acta Palaeontol Pol, 27(1–4), 115–127.
  58. Peterson, J.E., & Bigalke, C.L. (2013). Hydrodynamic behaviors of pachycephalosaurid domes in controlled fluvial settings: A case study in experimental dinosaur taphonomy. Palaios. 28(5), 285–292. https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2013.p13-003r
  59. Peterson, J.E., Dischler, C., & Longrich, N.R. (2013). Distributions of cranial pathologies provide evidence for head-butting in dome-headed dinosaurs (Pachycephalosauridae). PLoS One, 8(7), e68620. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068620
  60. Peterson, J.E., & Vittore, C.P. (2012). Cranial pathologies in a specimen of Pachycephalosaurus. PLoS One, 7(4), 236277. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036227
  61. Pruden, M.J., Mendonca, S.E., & Leighton, L.R. (2018). The effects of predation on the preservation of ontogenetically young individuals. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol. 490, 404–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.11.019
  62. Riccomi, G., Fornaciari, G., & Giuffra, V. (2019). Multiple myeloma in paleopathology: A critical review. Int J Paleopathol. 24(November 2018), 201–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpp.2018.12.001
  63. Rigby, J.K.J., Rice, A., & Currie, P.J. (1987). Dinosaur thermoregulatory Cretaceous/Tertiary survival strategies. Geol Soc Am Abstr with Programs, 19(7), 820.
  64. Robling, A.G., & Stout, S.D. (1999). Morphology of the drifting osteon. Cells Tissues Organs. 164(4), 192–204. https://doi.org/10.1159/000016659
  65. Schnitzler, C.M. (2015). Childhood cortical porosity is related to microstructural properties of the bone-muscle junction. J Bone Miner Res. 30(1), 144–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbmr.2312
  66. Schott, R.K., & Evans, D.C. (2012). Squamosal ontogeny and variation in the pachycephalosaurian dinosaur Stegoceras validum Lambe, 1902, from the Dinosaur Park Formation, Alberta. J Vertebr Paleontol, 32(4), 903–913. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2012.679878
  67. Schott, R.K., & Evans, D.C. (2016). Cranial variation and systematics of Foraminacephale brevis gen. nov. and the diversity of pachycephalosaurid dinosaurs (Ornithischia: Cerapoda) in the Belly River Group of Alberta, Canada. Zool J Linn Soc., 179(4), 865-906. https://doi.org/10.1111/zoj.12465
  68. Schott, R.K., Evans, D.C., Goodwin, M.B., Horner, J.R., Brown, C.M., & Longrich, N.R. (2011). Cranial ontogeny in Stegoceras validum (Dinosauria: Pachycephalosauria): A quantitative model of pachycephalosaur dome growth and variation. PLoS One, 6(6), e21092. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021092
  69. Schott, R.K., Evans, D.C., Williamson, T.E., Carr, T.D., & Goodwin, M.B. (2009). The anatomy and systematics of Colepiocephale lambei (Dinosauria: Pachycephalosauridae). J Vertebr Paleontol, 29(3), 771–786. https://doi.org/10.1671/039.029.0329
  70. Schultz, M. (2001). Paleohistopathology of bone: A new approach to the study of ancient diseases. Am J Phys Anthropol. 44, 106–147. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.10024
  71. Silverman, S. (2006). Diagnostic Imaging. In: Mader DR (Ed.) Reptil Med Surg. (2nd ed). St. Louis: Saunders Elsevier.
  72. Siviero, B.C.T., Rega E., Hayes, W.K., Cooper, A.M., Brand, L.R., & Chadwick, A.V. (2020). Skeletal trauma with implications for intratail mobility in Edmontosaurus annectens from a monodominant bonbed, Lance Formation (Maastrichtian), Wyoming USA. Palaios. 35, 201–214. https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2019.079
  73. Skedros, J.G., Sorenson, S.M., & Jenson, N.H. (2007). Are distributions of secondary osteon variants useful for interpreting load history in mammalian bones? Cells Tissues Organs. 185(4), 285–307. https://doi.org/10.1159/000102176
  74. Skedros, J.G., Su, S.C., & Bloebaum, R.D. (1997). Biomechanical implications of mineral content and microstructural variations in cortical bone of horse, elk, and sheep calcanei. Anat Rec. 249, 297–316. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(199711)249:3%3C297::AID-AR1%3E3.0.CO;2-S
  75. Skinner, M.F., Durpras, T.L., & Moyà-Solà, S. (1995). Periodicity of linear enamel hypoplasias among Miocene Dryopithecus from Spain. J Paleopathol. 7(3), 195–222.
  76. Snively, E., & Cox, A. (2008). Structural mechanics of pachycephalosaur crania permitted head-butting behavior. Palaeontol Electron, 11(1), 3A: 17.
  77. Snively, E., & Theodor, J.M. (2011). Common functional correlates of head-strike behavior in the pachycephalosaur Stegoceras validum (Ornithischia, Dinosauria) and combative artiodactyls. PLoS One. 6(6), e21422. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021422
  78. Sues, H-D., & Galton, P.M. (1987). Anatomy and classification of the North American Pachycephalosauria (Dinosauria: Ornithischia). Palaeontogr Abteilung A. 198, 1–40.
  79. Sullivan, R.M. (2003). Revision of the dinosaur Stegoceras Lambe (Ornithischia, Pachycephalosauridae). J Vertebr Paleontol, 23(1), 181–207. https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2003)23[181:ROTDSL]2.0.CO;2
  80. Sullivan, R.M. (2006). A taxonomic review of the Pachycephalosauridae (Dinosauria: Ornithischia). In: Lucas SG, Sullivan RM, editors. Late Cretac Vertebr form West Inter. Albuquerque: New Mexico Museum of Natural History Bulletin 35; p. 347–365.
  81. Teitelbaum, S.L., Stewart, C.C., & Kahn, A.J. (1979). Rodent peritoneal macrophages as bone resorbing cells. Calcif Tissue Int. 27(1), 255–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02441194
  82. Thompson, C.E.L., Ball, S., Thompson, T.J.U., & Gowland, R. (2011). The abrasion of modern and archaeological bones by mobile sediments: The importance of transport modes. J Archaeol Sci. 38(4), 784–793. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2010.11.001
  83. Uchman, A., Álvaro, J.J. (2000). Non-marine invertebrate trace fossils from the Tertiary Calatayud-Teruel basin, NE Spain. Rev Española Paleontol., 15(2), 203–218.
  84. Wallach, J.D. (1975). The pathogenesis and etiology of ulcerative shell disease in turtles. J Zoo Anim Med. 6(1), 25–28.
  85. Watabe, M., Tsogtbaatar, K., & Sullivan, R.M. (2011). A new pachycephalosaurid from the Baynchire Formation (Cenomanian-Late Santonian), Gobi Desert, Mongolia. In: Sullivan RM, Lucas SG, Spielmann JA, editors. Foss Rec 3. Albuquerque: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 53; p. 489–497.
  86. Weaver, V., Goodwin, M., & Horner, J. (2014). Histology of pachycephalosaurid crania reveals evidence of multiple tissue types and variable origin of apical pathologies. In: Maxwell E, Miller-Camp J (Editors. Soc Vertebr Paleontol Novemb 2014 Abstr Pap 74th Annu Meet. Berlin; p. 253.
  87. Williamson, T.E., & Brusatte, S.L. (2016). Pachycephalosaurs (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) from the Upper Cretaceous (upper Campanian) of New Mexico: A reassessment of Stegoceras novomexicanum. Cretac Res. 62, 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2016.01.012
  88. Xing, L., Rothschild, B.M., Randolph-Quinney, P.S., Wang, Y., Parkinson, A.H., & Ran, H. (2018). Possible bite-induced abscess and osteomyelitis in Lufengosaurus (Dinosauria: sauropodomorph) from the Lower Jurassic of the Yimen Basin, China. Sci Rep. 8, 5045. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-23451-x

How to Cite

Dyer, A. D. ., LeBlanc, A. R. ., Doschak, M. R. ., & Currie, P. J. . (2021). Taking a crack at the dome: histopathology of a pachycephalosaurid (Dinosauria: Ornithischia) frontoparietal dome. Biosis: Biological Systems, 2(2), 248–270. https://doi.org/10.37819/biosis.002.02.0101

HTML
1628

Total
521

Share

Search Panel

Downloads

Article Details

Most Read This Month

License